This means that men and women should have the same rights and opportunities. Boys and girls should have equal access to school and the same quality of education; men and women should stand the same chance of getting elected to parliaments, have the same chances to be involved in political and social life, and experience the same opportunities and rewards in the workplace.

Far too many women continue to face oppression and deeply embedded discrimination. This affects everything from access to health and education to the right to own land and earn a living, to equal pay and access to financial services, to participation in decision- making at local and national levels, to freedom from violence.

Globally, young women and girls are less educated, less healthy and less free than their male peers.  Girls in many settings, particularly those outside of parental care, are highly vulnerable to sexual abuse, violence in schools and early marriage, factors, which have significant impact on their schooling and development.  The additional barriers faced by girls in rural areas, those with disabilities and of racial, religiousand ethnic minorities prevent many from breaking out of poverty and unequal social structures.

Investing in girls can be the single most effective intervention to reduce poverty and achieve progress across the entire range of goals.  Educated women are more likely to seek and use family planning, skilled care at birth and other sexual and reproductive health services and to ensure that their children receive essential preventative and curative health care (primary and critical care, vaccinations, etc.).

Women’s participation in decision-making and the labor force fosters greater investments in the health and wellbeing of themselves, their families and communities and creates the conditions for stronger economic growth and good governance.  A 2006 International Monetary Fund survey concluded that “societies that increase women’s access to education, health care, employment, and credit, and that narrow differences between women and men in economic opportunities, increase the pace of economic development and reduce poverty.”

The message is simple. Women who are safe, healthy, educated, and fully empowered to realize their potential transform their families, their communities, their economies and their societies. We must create the conditions so they can do so.

 

 

 

 

 

 

1. 1.     WOMEN ARE STILL DISPROPORTIONATELY REPRESENTED AMONG THE WORLD’S POOREST

The majority of the world’s poorest people are women and girls. This, in itself, demonstrates the urgent need for a specific focus on women and girls in any new framework.  It is estimated that women account for two thirds of the 1.4 billion people currently living in extreme povertyand make up 60 percent of the 572 million working poor in the world.Research in Sub-Saharan Africa has revealed that women are more likely to live in poverty than men in in 22 out of the 25 countries for which data is available.  The high proportion of women living in poverty highlights the importance of a focus on women’s empowerment in its own right.

Do these statistics suggest that the current development framework is failing to address the root causes of women’s poverty?

 

 

1. 2.     WOMEN’S POVERTY & GENDER INEQUALITY

Women’s poverty is, in part, caused by gender inequality.  The unequal distribution of income and control over resources (including property, assets and financial capital) between women and men, women’s lack of decision-making power, the unequal distribution of household tasks, the caregiving role assigned to women and girls, gender-based violence, and the constraints imposed on women’s socio-economic mobility due to legal, cultural and labor market barriers, all act as contributory factors which cause and compound women’s poverty. 

 

Women’s lack of decision making power
Women’s social roles as care-givers and unequal distribution of household tasks
Gender-based violence
Constraints on women’s socio-economic mobility
Unequal distribution and control of resources between women and men
the above leads to women’s poverty

 

 

The above aims to show how gender inequality is a root cause of women’s poverty.

Do you agree with this analysis?  What would you add, change, modify etc.…?

 

1. 3.     ACHIEVING GENDER EQUALITY

Over the past 15 years, there have been hard won gains on gender equality. Women are living longer and have more choices over how many children they have.  Gender gaps in girls’ enrolment in primary education have closed in almost all countries.  There have also been increases in women’s participation in the labor market in almost every region of the world.  Women also continue to gain representation in parliamentsand maternal mortality has more than halved since 1990.  However, despite these developments, and as the statistics below show, progress is slow and uneven.  Women continue to face discrimination across economic, social and political spheres and entrenched gender disparities remain a major driver of poverty.

Gender Inequality Snap Shot:

• Women account for two thirds of the world’s 774 million illiterate adults. This has remained unchanged for the past two decades.
• Women spend at least twice as much time as men on domestic work, and when all work (paid and unpaid) is taken into account, women work longer hours than men do.
• Women make up the majority of HIV-positive adults in sub-Saharan Africa, North Africa and the Middle East.
• In the less developed regions, fewer women than men have cash income and a significant proportion of married women have no say in how their cash earnings are spent.
• Fewer than 20 percent of the world’s landholders are women.  Women make up less than five percent of all agricultural landholders in North Africa and West Asia, while in sub-Saharan Africa they make up an average of 15 percent.
• It is estimated that the global financial crisis resulted in 16 million more unemployed women between 2007 and 2009 and that women were pushed into informal and unsafe jobs at a faster rate than men were.

Do these statistics surprise you?What can be done to change them?

 

Gender is seen as a universal issues.  The pursuit of women’s empowerment is applicable to all countries.  Each women and girl experience discrimination differently, but there are also shared realities and barriers.  In no country has gender equality yet been achieved.

Do you agree with this statement?

 

 

 

1. 4.     IDENTIFYING PRIORITIES

The chart below are the top ten priorities identified by the majority of women’s organizations.

 

Eliminating gender based violence
Enhancing women’s leadership and empowerment
Economic empowerment
Reproductive rights and health
Sexual health (including HIV and AIDS)
Economic, Social and Cultural rights
Peacebuilding & VAW in conflict/post-conflict contexts
Access to education
Political Participation
Sexual rights

Do you agree with these priorities?  What would you add or change?

 

 

1. 5.     VIOLENCE AGAINST GIRLS AND WOMEN &CHILD MARRIAGE

Women across the world have to work hard to overcome significant barriers to opportunity. These barriers can only be removed when there is zero tolerance of violence against and exploitation of women and girls.  Women should be able to live in safety and enjoy their basic human rights. This is a first and very basic step.

Gender-based violence is both persistent and widespread.  This violence takes many different forms: rape, domestic violence, acid attacks, so-called “honor” killings etc.  It cuts across the boundaries of age, race, culture, wealth and geography.  It takes place in the home, on the streets, in schools, the workplace, in farm fields, refugee camps, during conflicts and crises.  Every year, one billion women are subject to sexual or physical violence because they lack equal protection under the law.  The mandate to preventing and eliminating all forms of violence against girls and women is universal.  But measurement is complex. When women feel more empowered and believe justice will be done, reported incidents of violence might rise.

Child marriage is a global issue across, but sensitive to culture, religions, ethnicity and countries. When children marry young, their education can be cut short, their risk of maternal mortality is higher and they can become trapped in poverty.  In 2009, worldwide more than 60 million women were married before they turned 18 years old.  If this trend continues, more than 100 million girls will probably be married as children over the next decade.  In a UNICEF global study of child marriage, in all the countries analyzed, child marriage was most common among the poorest 20 percent of the population.  The causes and consequences of early marriage are intrinsically linked and include low levels of education, health and autonomy for girls, poverty, and low socio-economic status.  Girls who enter into marriage early also face serious health risks. They are more vulnerable than their unmarried peers to adverse pregnancy outcomes, HIV infection and violence, and have less control over their reproductive health and sexual rights.  Girls below the age of 15 who give birth are five times more likely to die in childbirth than women in their twenties are.

Women across the world have to work hard to overcome significant barriers to opportunity. These barriers can only be removed when there is zero tolerance of violence against and exploitation of women and girls.

 

What does a“Zero Tolerance” policy for violence against women mean?

How can we achieve this?  What do you think are the root causes of violence against women and girls?

 

 

1. 6.     ELIMINATE DISCRIMINATION AGAINST WOMEN IN POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, AND PUBLIC LIFE

Despite sustained efforts to mitigate gender inequalities, most countries’ consultations confirm that women still feel less safe, less listened to and less important than men.  As consultations are ongoing, anecdotal evidence indicates that gender inequality was raised consistently in national dialogues and in all 11 thematic consultations.  In multiple forums, participants mention dimensions of gender inequality, including in education, employment, energy, food security and nutrition, as well as the persistent phenomenon of violence against women, which is a result of and reinforces gender inequality.

No society has become prosperous without a major contribution from its women.  The World Economic Forum finds that the countries with small gender gaps are the same countries with the highest ratings for “international competitiveness,” and microeconomic studies suggest that the economic participation of women drives household income growth.  Women with equal rights are an irreplaceable asset for every society and economy.  We know that gender equality transforms not only households,but also societies. When women can decide how to spend their household’s money, they tend to invest more in their children.  A woman who receives more years of schooling is more likely to make decisions about immunization and nutrition that will improve her child’s chances in life.

Considerable progress has been made in bringing about greater gender equality in access to health and education.  This momentum must be maintained by making sure that gender equality in education remains a strong priority, with a renewed focus on enhanced access to post-basic and post-secondary education for girls and women in safe, supportive learning environments.   Evidence demonstrates that the multiplier effect of girls’ educational development only becomes evident when girls complete secondary education.

However, the consultations also suggest that gender equality cannot be addressed only through a narrow focus on access to education; rather, 
it must be addressed within the
larger society, simultaneously on multiple levels and in multiple sectors, including economic, social, political and cultural.  In these areas, much less progress has been made.

Research shows that women all over the world are disadvantaged in the labor markets.  In all regions, the participation of women in the labor markets is lower than that of men (especially in the Middle East, North Africa, and South Asia where it is less than 30 percent.)  Half of the women in the labor force are in vulnerable employment, with no job security and no protection against economic shocks. Moreover, even when they work on par with men, their pay is 10 to 30 percent lower than men’s. Many agreed that social protection measures and social services need to target women specifically.

Do you agree?  What social protection measures should be promoted/included in the new framework to empower and protect women?

 

We must work to fulfill the promise of women’s equal access to, and full participation in, decision-making.  This must happen in governments, companies and in civil society.  In countries where women’s interests are strongly represented, laws have been passed to secure land rights, tackle violence against women and improve health care and employment.  Yet, women currently occupy less than 20 percent of parliamentary seats worldwide.

How can the framework address the need for broader and more meaningful participation of women in decision-making processes, including all levels of government, private companies, the media etc.?   Do you think broader representation is important to achieve gender equality?

 

 

 

1. 7.     WHAT HAVE WE LEARNT ABOUT ACHIEVING GENDER EQUALITY?

The MDGs, and specifically MDG3, have done much to influence the international debate on gender equality over the past decade.  Importantly, MDG3 has demonstrated the impact that a dedicated gender goal can have. It has promoted inclusion of gender in the broader development agenda and has increased political will for and attention to the needs and priorities of women and girls. It has also spurred new investment in gender both in relation to resources and also in terms of increased technical knowledge.

The inclusion of gender equality as a stand-alone goal has created a powerful advocacy tool for women’s organizations and other NGOs to hold their governments to account. As an internationally agreed framework, the MDGs have helped to create a new global narrative for international development, which includes gender equality as an essential component. This has opened up space for women’s and civil society organizations to call for international development agencies, donors, and their own national governments to pay attention to women and girls as a development priority.

However, the experience of the MDGs also suggests the need for more dedicated resources, improved data, and the importance of framing a new goal and targets in a transformative way, to tackle the causes as well as the symptoms of gender inequality. For example, eliminating gender disparity in primary and secondary education, the only MDG3 target, puts emphasis on the enrollment of girls in school but fails to consider the many barriers girls may face attending or completing school and the gendered power relations within schools which may impact the quality of education. Similarly, measuring female representation in parliament does not measure whether women are able to meaningfully participate once elected, or the actual impact women have in decision-making. Nor does it measure women’s political participation at local or regional levels.

A number of commentators have pointed to the need for more focus on social transformation in the post-MDG framework.  Nowhere is this more needed than in the area of gender equality, which must go hand in hand with the promotion of women’s empowerment and rights if changes are to be deep and lasting.Ensuring that women and girls benefit more equally from opportunities on offer is clearly important. However, to tackle gender inequality at its roots, more is required.

As the Millennium Task Force on Education and Gender Equality stated,

“The problem is not a lack of practical ways to address gender inequality but rather a lack of change on a large and deep enough scale to bring about a transformation in the way societies conceive of and organize men’s and women’s roles, responsibilities, and control over resources … To be empowered women must not only have equal capabilities (such as education and health) and equal access to resources and opportunities (such as land and employment), they must also have the agency to use those rights, capabilities, resources, and opportunities to make strategic choices and decisions (such as are provided through leadership opportunities and participation in political institutions). And to exercise agency, women must live without the fear of coercion and violence.”

Transformative targets must reflect the changes needed to achieve gender equality and girls and women’s empowerment. While legal and economic barriers must be addressed, there are other significant social and cultural barriers.  Laws may have been reformed allowing women access to justice after rape, but social norms and values will have to be challenged so that the community will not shun a woman for reporting the crime, her family will support her, and that she, herself, will believe it is not her fault.

If power imbalances are not identified and addressed, the positive impact on women and across development outcomes will be lost. For example, a target which focuses on women’s ownership of land does not mean that women actually have control over this land or the income generated. In fact, power imbalances in the household and the community may mean that, despite owning the land on paper, the decision-making power over the land remains with the woman’s husband or father.

A new post-2015 framework should reflect an understanding that women’s poverty is, in part, a result of their socially enforced gender roles and relations and that, without specifically addressing the causes of gender inequality, women’s poverty will persist.

Do you think the Post 2015 agenda should contain a stand-alone goal on Women’s Empowerment?

How can the agenda promote “transformational” targets that address social norms and values and the imbalance of power in households?

 

The evidence is indisputable that the achievement of other human development goals is dependent on women and girls’ empowerment and access to power, resources, services and opportunities. All thematic consultations reiterated the call for multi-dimensional and inter-sectorial solutions.  Gender equality is seen as a precondition for several agendas, including reducing food insecurity, hunger and malnutrition, decreasing violence and making in-roads into energy poverty. 

One view is that gender equality should be integrated across all of the goals, both in specific targets and by making sure that targets are measured separately for women and men, or girls and boys, where appropriate.

Do you agree?  How would you “mainstream” gender targets into other goals?

(For example under Governance you could measure the proportion of women’s organizations out of total participants in formal peace negotiations.)

Freedom From Discrimination and Persecution

This means that no person in the world should have their economic, social or political opportunities limited because of their race, ethnicity, religion, disability, sexual preference, or for any other reason, and that no person should fear for their personal safety for the same reasons

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, signed over 60 years ago, set out the fundamental freedoms and human rights that form the foundations of human development.  It reiterated a simple and powerful truth – that every person is born free and equal in dignity and rights. 

When world leaders adopted the landmark Millennium Declaration in 2000, they recognized that they could not make “the right to development a reality for everyone” and free “the entire human race from want” without also promoting equality, non-discrimination and human rights.  This declaration set the basis for the Millennium Development Goals, which have inspired significant action and investment to address some of the most pressing needs of the world’s most poor and marginalized. In translating the Declaration to a set of goals, targets and indicators, however, its core commitments to equality and human rights were largely lost.

Twelve years on, it is now widely accepted that one of the biggest shortcomings of the MDGs was its lack of a rigorous focus on equality and incentives to address the needs of the poorest and most marginalized.  Without doubt there has been significant progress, but this progress was not equally shared either within or between countries. 

Since the millennium, concern around inequalities has become more prominent.  The view that global and national inequalities have grown is widely held, and supported by evidence.  The consultation stressed that national averages have concealed often highly uneven progress towards MDG targets, with many specific groups, such as women and girls, people with disabilities and ethnic minorities, as well as families in remote rural and urban slum localities, being systematically left behind. 

One view is that the focus on goals not only diverted attention away from the underlying principles of the equality and human rights; it meant that the focus was often on symptoms of problems and not on the underlying drivers of progress.  All of this has led to calls for a new framework, which incorporates and reaffirms the values and principles associated with human rights, equality and non-discrimination, the right to participate, freedom from fear and all forms of violence, access to justice and respect for nature.

“We have a collective responsibility to uphold the principles of human dignity, equality and equity at the global level. As leaders we have a duty therefore to all the world’s people, especially the most vulnerable and, in particular, the children of the world, to whom the future belongs.”

United Nations Millennium Declaration, Paragraph 2, 2000

 

1. 1.     ADDRESSING INEQUALITIES& POVERTY

Translating equality and the other fundamental values of the Millennium Declaration more systematically and effectively into practice will be crucial to sustaining progress and improving the wellbeing of both today’s and all future generations.  Inequalities and discrimination manifest in unequal access to opportunities, essential goods, services and other resources, and negatively affects one’s ability to participate in civic and political life.  It disempowers individuals and groups and prevents them from maximizing their full potential. 

The interaction of discriminatory processes tends to have a compounding effect that increases marginalization and social exclusion.  Substantial evidence across a number of countries demonstrates that women, racial, ethnic minorities and other marginalized groups have a disproportionate chance of being poor.  This is an indication that discriminatory structures and processes play a role in keeping these groups in poverty by limiting their access to resources, services, and opportunities. 

Unless the inequalities and discrimination that hold back the current generation are overcome, the well being of future generations cannot be secured.  Inequalities are often mutually reinforcing and often create and perpetuate cycles of poverty over generations. For example, across generations, children’s education is highly affected by the outcomes of their parents’ education.  Too often the income of a child’s parents, whether the child is a girl or boy, or the ethnic group that they belong to, determines the opportunities they have to thrive and learn.  Children born today into conditions of deprivation will suffer setbacks that they may never recover from — and these deprivations are likely to affect the lives of their children in turn. Children born into poor families are less likely to live prosperous lives, receive adequate nutrition and health care, benefit from quality education and otherwise access the services and opportunities that would allow them to escape poverty themselves.  This is true in both wealthy and poor countries.

Compelling evidence also suggests that poor children are acutely aware of their status relative to their peers, which often affects their aspirations and ability to thrive.  The impact of income inequality early in life manifests in poor performance in school, the under-development of capabilities and limited prospects in adult life.

As long as structural inequalities persist, there is a strong risk that development efforts will not reach the people who are least able to lead decent lives, and will fall short of fulfilling the collective vision that inspired the Millennium Declaration.

Do you agree?  Do structural inequalities keep people poor and further entrench patterns of discrimination?

How can the fundamental values of the Millennium Declaration be more systematically and effectively into practice?

 

1. 2.     THE NEED TO ADDRESS STRUCTURAL ISSUES

In order to address these inequalities, we need to understand the discriminatory structures and processes that underlie them.  Inequalities result from structural barriers in several domains:  economic, social, environmental and political.  These barriers intersect and reinforce each other and ultimately compromise efforts towards reducing poverty, lead to inequitable progress, encourage unsustainable patterns of economic growth and can lead to instability, heightened social tensions and ultimately, to conflict. 

Economic Domain

In the economic domain, distributive inequalities create disparities in accessing the resources necessary to participate in society. This can apply to employment, assets and opportunities.

Between 2000 and 2011, the World Bank reclassified 28 countries, including populous China and India, from low-income to middle-income status.  The number of low-income countries almost halved, from 63 to 35.  As a result over 70 percent of the world’s poor now live in countries designated middle income.Notwithstanding the increases in poverty in the existing middle income countries, most of the world’s poor are still the same people, living in the same places and doing the same work as they were before their countries “graduated.”  The changes that are transforming their countries’ performance have had very little effect on their immediate livelihoods or wellbeing.

For the vast majority of individuals and households in the world, income is obtained primarily from work. In many instances, work can also provide social standing, self-determination and dignity.  The extent to which widespread, stable and decent employment is available is a major determinant of wellbeing.

In recent years, “jobless growth” has characterized labor markets across the world.  At the same time, the informal sector has grown to account for nearly 90 percent of work worldwide, exposing workers to risky labor contracts, insecurity, and lack of protection or benefits, most acutely among women, people living in poverty and unskilled workers.The gap between formal and informal employment drives significant inequalities in both developing and high-income countries.

Contributors to the addressing inequalities onsultations highlighted that the barriers to employment faced by the world’s estimated 900 million persons of working age with disabilities condemn many of them to poverty and disadvantage.  Yet, the exclusion of persons with disabilities from the workforce is estimated to cost developing countries between 3 to 7 percent of GDPeach year.

Migrants in particular are often excluded from the protections afforded to citizens, and lack recourse in the event of job termination or unfair treatment.  While many richer and middle-income countries depend significantly on in-migration to maintain their economies, migrants are often exposed to multiple inequalities and deprivation of rights.  The burden of these problems often falls on women and children.  Access to social services may be formally restricted, or undermined by institutional constraints, including language and social stigma.  These inequalities attach not only to new migrants but also to their children, whose unequal access to education and health provide the basis for future disadvantage in employment.

Women who migrate alone for domestic work face particular risks. Migrant domestic workers in the Middle East in particular report multiple forms of abuse, such as lack of adequate living conditions, food deprivation, long working hours, no rest days, low or no payment, restrictions of movement, and confiscation of passports.  They are subject to physical, emotional, verbal, and sexual abuse.  Since these women often accumulate debt for overseas employment, they are reluctant to leave and lose their jobs.  Resorting to the legal system for redress is impossible.  These inequalities attach not only to new migrants but also to their children, whose unequal access to education and health provide the basis for future disadvantage in employment.

The addressing inequalities consultation also reflected increasing concerns about youth unemployment.  Youth unemployment is three times that of adult unemployment across the world, with major present and future economic consequences at household, community and national level.  Some contributions showed that youth unemployment fuelled illegal migration, trafficking, and xenophobia.Moreover, evidence shows that in many countries, a mix of high unemployment, increased inactivity and precarious work could lead to a combustible ‘scarred’ generation, fuelling social unrest and violence.

Access to the assets needed to generate income is another factor driving inequalities.  An important structural determinant of asset inequalities is the legal right to acquire or own assets, or to inherit them.  In many places, discriminatory provisions restrict the rights of women or members of other disadvantaged groups to own property.  Such restrictions may also apply to inheritance, threatening significant economic hazard in the event of the death of a family member. 

Even where ownership is possible, inequalities may also be created through disparities in access to legal or administrative institutions necessary for that ownership to be recognized.  Such institutions may have explicitly discriminatory policies and systems, or may reproduce patterns of social exclusion that tend to deter and exclude people living in poverty and disadvantaged groups (for example, conducting business in official languages only).

Factors that limit access to land are a critical element in asset inequalities. Disparities in access to land have long-standing historical roots in many countries, with women and members of minority ethnic or linguistic groups, castes or clans often lacking equal entitlements.  In addition to this, there are concerns about the increasing number of new external actors obtaining land in developing countries.  Contributors to the addressing inequalities consultation highlighted major violations of indigenous peoples’ right to their land, territories and natural resources, such as land grabbing and unfair competition exercised by States and private investors/companies, exploitation of natural resources by extractive industries, resource-based conflicts, and lack of recognition of customary tenure systems. These practices impair indigenous peoples’ rights to access and use forests, ancestral lands and natural resources.

Structural inequalities in access to credit create disparities at all levels. The largest and wealthiest have easy access to significant and cheap credit, while people living in poverty struggle for access to small, short-term loans at often-great cost, and with considerable risk.  As returns to capital increasingly exceed returns to labor, unequal access to credit multiplies inequalities.

Assets provide the opportunity of being able to smooth risks and respond to shocks. Asset deprivation leaves individuals, households and even nations unable to anticipate or mitigate the impact of risk and shock.  When security or protection is sought from elsewhere, the costs and hazards of dependency are often very high.

There is growing agreement that societies cannot flourish in an environment that fuels inequitable access to resources, to knowledge and to meaningful participation in the life of society.  Such extremes undermine economic vitality, cripple participation in decision-making and political processes, obstruct the flow of knowledge and information, isolate people and communities and distort the perception of human capacity.  According to research done by the Asian Development Bank, “another 240 million people could have been lifted out of poverty over the past 20 years if inequality had remained stable instead of increasing as it has since the 1990s.”  In the long-term, according to the IMF, recent evidence tilts the balance towards the notion that attention to inequality can bring significant longer-run benefits for growth.

One view is that there are a number of factors that contribute to income or economic inequalities – discrimination being only one of many.   Do you agree?

Can economic inequalities be addressed through measures to achieve equality of opportunity?  What does this mean to you? 

History shows that countries tend to have cycles in their income inequality and that countries differ widely both in their view of what levels of income inequality are acceptable and in the strategies they adopt to reduce it.  Should there be a universal target that reflects some level of acceptable income inequality?   How would this be determined? 

How should economic inequalities be addressed at the global, national and local level?

 

 

Social Domain

Social inequalities result from structures that deny some people equal standing with others. They create second-class status, undermining the dignity of those affected, and eroding the shared humanity of the society in which discrimination is occurring.  Social inequalities occur between groups as a result of historical and/or cultural factors, geographic residence and discrimination based on factors of identity and status such as gender, age, disability, sexuality, ethnicity and other factors.

The hierarchies that define which groups are in a position of dominance, and which ones are excluded from full participation in various aspects of society, can become very entrenched.  This exclusion can be underpinned by a combination of legal, political and economic measures, reinforced by widespread social, cultural and even religious devaluation, and perpetuated by limited access to food, healthcare, education, land rights, justice, employment and social protection.  While the identity of disadvantaged groups varies, there are commonalities in patterns of exclusion that are reproduced globally.  Discrimination against ethnic minorities, religious or non-religious groups and racial discrimination is a key concern in this respect. 

In Latin America, some 50 million indigenous people and 120 million people of African descent account for around a third of the population. They are exposed to significant disparities in terms of wealth, land ownership, employment, political representation and civil participation.  In East Asia, indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities are consistently poorer, with indigenous groups in countries including Vietnam, Indonesia, and China tending to occupy marginal livelihoods in remote locations, largely beyond the reach of otherwise growing economies.  The Hindu caste system in India and Nepal imposes explicit restrictions on work, housing, education, social interaction and movement for families deemed “untouchable.”  From Western Europe through Central Asia, Roma people are exposed to violence, abuse, and stigma, including segregation in access to public services, and restrictions on freedom of movement. In North America, African-Americans and other minorities face diverse forms of discrimination, with persistent disparities in health, education and incomes.  In Australia, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people still fare much worse than the rest of the population in terms of education, employment, health, standard of living and the incidence of family violence. Their life expectancy is 12 years less for males and 10 years less for females as compared to the general population.

Globally, persons with disabilities, face inequalities in all areas of life, not only leading to exclusion and discrimination but also, combined with the frequent absence of adequate social protection measures, almost unavoidably resulting in poverty.Submissions highlighted deficits including access to development programs and funds, education, employment, health care and transportation.The addressing inequalities consultation noted that persons with disabilities comprise some 12 to 18 percent of the world population.  Around 80 percent of all persons with disabilities live in developing countries.  In both rich and poor countries, disability rates are twice as high for people living in poverty.  Conflict is also a leading cause of disability, exacerbated where those affected have low access to medical and other care, and in circumstances where civilians are most greatly affected by war, including through sexual violence against women.

The consultation emphasized the extent to which ethnic and linguistic minorities and indigenous peoples face structural exclusion that limits integration into society. In many countries, health systems do not integrate the traditional knowledge, medicines and practices of indigenous peoples.  Similarly, education systems do not integrate local and indigenous languages and cultures. Similar barriers exist in the workplace, where language determines access to better opportunities. These barriers may create a permanent and continuing division between minority language speakers and the elite, prevent integration and inclusion, and contribute to loss of culture.

Even where legal provisions exist to ban or reverse discrimination based on social status, submissions to the addressing inequalities consultation described powerful social norms that have reduced progress. In India, for example, contributors pointed out that laws to protect and advance the status of scheduled castes and tribes have not eliminated harassment and exclusion.Others highlighted ways in which indigenous peoples commonly face discriminatory attitudes and practices in the workplace, at school, in politics and in the dealings of the police and judiciary.  Laws protecting women and girls from discrimination, violence and abuse are commonly flouted.Similarly, others pointed out that even where the rights of people living with HIV and AIDS have been established in law, there are still many instances in which prevailing attitudes and norms perpetuate discrimination and prejudice.

Where the law does not protect disadvantaged groups, discrimination may be pervasive. Worse still, some groups may be criminalized, or suffer legal sanction or constraints to their equal participation in society. Examples include LGBTI people, sex workers and migrants, who in many countries are assigned a second-class or illegal status in law.  In many countries these groups experience an extreme level of discrimination of access to sexual and reproductive health services, including exclusion from HIV and AIDS prevention and care, despite being high-risk populations.

High levels of social inequalities are associated with falling aspirations and self-esteem, a loss of hope, and a resultant rise in behaviors that have negative consequences affecting whole populations at individual, community and national level.  Alcohol and drug abuse, violence and criminal behavior have each been researched in this context, all associated with higher levels of inequality.  In both rich and rapidly growing countries, these effects manifest in stark differences in life expectancy.  In many countries, disadvantaged young men, particularly those from minority ethnic groups, are particularly vulnerable to homicide and suicide.  Persistent inequalities and the stigma of social inferiority can be internalized by those exposed to prejudice and discrimination and result in self-limiting behavior.  Powerful feelings of shame and humiliation around poverty and low social status reduce social participation and drive children away from school.

The consultations and research suggest that legal structures alone cannot provide adequate remedies to social inequalities?  How can “powerful social norms” that perpetuate discrimination and inequalities be effectively addressed?

 

Environmental Domain

In the environmental domain, environmental inequalities expose some people or groups to a disproportionate share of environmental hazard, and/or discrimination in securing reasonable access to the natural resources they need to lead a healthy life.Environmental inequalities are the result of structural conditions that expose people to disproportionate and unacceptable levels of hazard and damage, and create differential and discriminatory access to the environmental resources necessary to live a healthy life.

The challenges of unequal access to natural resources, and of vulnerabilities to environmental degradation and climate change have become more severe. They have both exacerbated existing inequalities and raised new and critical risks for often already disadvantaged groups of people and countries.

The risks of exposure to contaminated water, air and soil, proximity to toxic and other waste dumps, access to adequate sewerage systems and the application of protective regulations are in many countries unequally distributed, to the detriment of people living in poverty and other disadvantaged groups. The limited opportunities for work and housing may offer no safe choices.  Children’s development is damaged, while their parents’ health is often compromised by hazardous occupations.

Climate change is also disproportionately affecting poorer parts of the world that have contributed little or nothing to these effects, with developing countries facing the “worst and first” effects of climate related disasters.  Within those regions, climate change poses particular threats to the livelihoods of poor and disadvantaged groups – including small scale farmers, pastoralists and nomads, artisanal fishers, and people living in fragile and low production environments – and to those living in poor quality housing, coastal areas and areas liable to flooding, and urban slums.

The distribution of impact of climate-related natural disasters shows significant patterns of inequality. Social and economic status, access to information, standards of housing and infrastructure, more accountable and effective governance, and better property rights all have an impact on prevention, mitigation and response to disasters.  Even within a small locality, disasters will have the greatest effects on most vulnerable people, especially women and girls, old people, persons with disabilities, and the sick.

How should the framework tackle structural conditions – which are often global in nature – that create environmental inequalities both in access to the environmental resources necessary to live a healthy life, as well as uneven exposure to the impacts of climate change?

 

Political Domain

Political inequalities are the result of structures that create unfairness in representation and participation, perpetuating disparities in how people can express voice, be listened to, participate in decision making or secure a fair hearing to resolve disputes and conflict.  This happens when discriminatory laws and policies are in place, or when the institutions of government operate unfairly.

Contributions to the addressing inequalities consultation show that political inequalities are common, driven by a range of factors. In some cases, laws and constitutions establish political inequalities.  The rights of women and girls, minority ethnic groups, indigenous peoples, migrants or LGBTI people may be limited, restricting representation, rights of ownership and participation, or to be heard with regard to civil and domestic affairs.  Legal restrictions may be specific in certain instances (concerning women and inheritance, for example), or may ensue from criminalization or legal exclusions attached to group membership.  In many countries, certain religious and/or non- religious groups are subject to political discrimination as a result of being unrecognized in law, and hence excluded from the rights of equal citizenship.

The lack of legal identity also leads to severe political discrimination.  Every year, about 50 million births are not registered anywhere, so these children do not have a legal identity.  Likewise, refugees, migrants and marginalized populations are often not recognized by national governments.  All of these people lack a “legal identity” and are anonymous in the eyes of the state.  They often have little or no access to public health and education services, lack the legal protection of the state, and are excluded from civic and political participation.

In other cases, political inequalities are the result of subtler but equally powerful forms of discrimination. Communities and individuals may be unable to participate because of language, or because of cultural conflict with the requirements of participation. Social attitudes may constrain or discourage participation of LGBTI people, women and girls, persons with disabilities and both young and old people.These may be reinforced by administrative, physical and logistical constraints (time of day, for example) that exclude some groups and favor others.  Where those experiencing inequalities are minorities or lack the right to vote, there is often little incentive for political parties to take their interests into account, and inequalities become entrenched.

Is political equality equivalent to full the realization of political freedoms or rights?

What does political equality mean in states where there are non-democratic forms of government?

 

 

Intersecting And Mutually Reinforcing Inequalities

There is considerable evidence that inequalities in
one structural domain increase the likelihood of
inequalities in others.  In the event of opportunity
for improvements in one domain, the chance of
progress is often undermined or rendered
inaccessible by simultaneous intersecting
disadvantage in another.  For example, indigenous
peoples and minority ethnic groups often have diminished social status, poor access to fertile land and water, low asset holdings and poor living conditions.  They also lack effective voice and political representation.  This all serves to reduce survival chances, nutritional status and incomes, undermine access to basic services, entrench household poverty, and increase the likelihood that children born to these communities will face similar conditions as adults.  These intersecting and mutually reinforcing inequalities are often rooted in historical relationships, and continue to be reproduced through discrimination

Addressing inequalities requires political will and leadership and a conscious decision to direct resources, services and power to those who have most difficulty accessing them.

Key policy recommendations put forward include:

• Prioritize the creation of employment and decent work, especially for youth, and improve conditions for laborers in the informal market.
• Implement social protection floor systems that guarantee income security and access to basic services, adopting equitable progressive taxation and redistribution measures.
• Frame development goals in terms of universal access and human rights, with targets and indicators for every goal that focus on reducing disparities.
• Address dominant forms of group-based inequality that result in inequitable outcomes, particularly those related to age, disability, ethnicity, caste, sexuality and the special needs of children.
• Identify and address institutionalized patterns of inequality through both policy and practice.
• Better measure development progress among the poorest and most marginalized by developing information systems that disaggregate data and thus capture and allow frequent monitoring of progress vis-à-vis marginalized groups.
• Measuring progress on equality needs to be based on national, context-sensitive 
targets – yet be universal in their coverage to include marginalized groups.
• Give attention to the quality of the efforts that are put forth to reach goals instead of solely focusing on numerical indicators of coverage and scale. (e.g. neither the civil rights movement in the US nor the end of apartheid in South Africa ended racism).

Do you agree with these recommendations? Who is accountable?

 

1. 3.     INEQUALITY, FRAGILITY AND CONFLICT

Inequalities are not just problems for those who are disadvantaged and excluded. They have deep consequences for everyone in society. Inequalities harm us all. Among these consequences are reductions in the pace and sustainability of economic growth; diminishment of the productive potential of all who are harmed and excluded, as well as, the loss of this potential to society; the worsening of existing fragilities and vulnerabilities, including to conflict and disasters; and the weakening of social cohesion and security for all. Addressing inequalities is not only the right thing in principle, but also vital in ensuring that we have a sustainable and peaceful world.

Inequality is a universal challenge.  It exists within and among countries. Although different societies experience different dominant inequalities as a result of their social, economic and political evolution, all the consultations highlighted that similar forms of inequalities are replicated across the world.

Research indicates that across even developed countries, crime is exacerbated by income inequality.  Most recently, a Harvard University study linked the correlation between homicide rates in the U.S. and income inequality: income inequality alone explained 74 percent of the prevalence in murder rates across U.S. states.  Likewise, a study of several Latin American countries found that social environments characterized by polarized social structures and weak institutions can quickly lead to social unrest, crime and conflict.

Increased global access to technology and social media has highlighted the extent of inequalities, driving awareness and increasing demand for change.  The perception that some are prospering while many struggle for a living, with the capture of both economic and political power going hand in hand, is the source of much unrest.  Political inequalities may build up over time, but change can be rapid, as people reach a tipping point in tolerance of inequalities.

Inequalities among countries currently account for the dominant part of global economic inequality. The concentration of global power over natural and economic resources and the structure
of markets and finance create inequalities in other countries.  Addressing these inequalities must include supporting efforts by poor and developing countries to diversify their economies, ensuring 
fair access to resources and markets, just and effective tax systems and control
ling international finance so that stable economic environments are secured and social goals can be met.

Do you agree?  What are the responsibilities of the “wealthy” countries in assuring the needs of marginalized populations are addressed?

How should national policies be incorporated? 

Do you think there is a link between inequality and conflict?

1. 4.     A HUMAN RIGHTS FRAMEWORK

The most common feature of the hundreds of papers and other submissions to the addressing inequalities consultations was the clear view that any response to inequalities can and must be guided by human rights.One view, strongly voiced by human rights organizations, such as Amnesty International, asserts that human rights are central to effective economic and social development for all – ensuring that no one is left behind. In the words of former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan: “We will not enjoy security without development. We will not enjoy development without security. And we will not enjoy either without respect for human rights.”

Proponents of a human rights based agenda aim to see human rights at the heart of the post-2015 agenda.  They contend that the post-2015 development agenda must be inclusive, transparent, participatory and informed by human rights standards in order to address some of the gaps in the previous MDGs, as well as, current development challenges.Ending all forms of discrimination and inequality, including segregation and exclusion, on grounds such as race, ethnicity, religion, gender, or other status is essential to enable people to exercise and claim their human rights.  Yet, it also means that the multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination that often place certain groups at greater risk of human rights violations due to their historic disadvantage and disempowerment must be tackled.

The principles of equality and non-discrimination are the cornerstones of international human rights agreements.  Equality—the state of being equal in rights, freedoms, socioeconomic status and opportunities—cannot be achieved without protection of the right not to be discriminated against on any grounds, such as “race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth, or other status.  International human rights treaties recognize that marginalized groups, such as women and girls, racial and ethnic minorities, children and people with disabilities, face discrimination that disadvantages them and requires governments to take additional measures to address these inequalities.  The rights to non-discrimination and equality are non-derogable rights, that is, rights that may not be violated under any circumstances, even in cases of emergency.

A human rights approach to development requires communities at all levels – local, national and international – to address underlying causes of inequality and lack of human rights by focusing on both the substance and the processes that may lead to inequity via discrimination and poverty.  It compels governments to take proactive measures to eliminate discrimination, reduce barriers and allocate resources in a way that promotes equality of both access and opportunity.  In cases where governments struggle to meet these requirements, human rights standards impel the international community to support the realization of rights through international assistance and cooperation.  These standards include prioritizing the rights of disadvantaged, marginalized and vulnerable groups in states’ international cooperation and assistance. 

Existing human rights mechanisms also offer a monitoring and accountability system that could facilitate analysis of discrimination, inequalities and countries’ responses to them. At the global level, these include the UN treaty bodies and the Universal Periodic Review and special rapporteurs. At the regional level, these include regional courts and human rights commissions. In most countries, international human rights treaties are binding law, which, in turn, encourages domestic mechanisms to protect and promote human rights at the national level.

Finally, a human rights approach moves away from the notion that the beneficiaries of development are subjects of charity.  It instead recognizes individuals as rights-holders and places obligations on governments to protect and promote their rights. 

 

In a joint statement of the Chairpersons of the UN Human Rights Treaty Bodies, on the occasion of the UN Millennium Summit and High-Level Plenary Meeting of the General Assembly on the MDGs (20-22 September 2010), it was clearly pointed out that, with regard to MDGs, “their realization would still fall short of what human rights treaties require, as treaties call for the realization of human rights for all, which goes beyond the reaching of quantified targets.”

What do you think?  Should the new framework be based on commitments in UN human rights treaty bodies?

 

One view is that the post-2015 international development framework should be universal in nature, in order to tackle the global challenge of inequalities and that goals should aspire to “getting to zero” — in terms of conditions such as poverty, violence, preventable deaths, malnutrition and denial of basic service access.

What do you think?  Should the new agenda include “getting to zero” goals?